Hydraulic Fracture Design Calculator

Completions engineering skill for hydraulic fracture design and analysis. Covers the analytical fracture mechanics models (PKN, KGD), pressure diagnostics (Nolte-Smith, G-function, ISIP), fluid and proppant design, and post-frac evaluation. Calibrated for Appalachian/Marcellus completions.

Important: Analytical fracture models are simplified approximations. For final stage design use a dedicated simulator (GOHFER, MFrac, ResFrac, or tNavigator fracture module). These calculations are appropriate for scoping, coursework, and first-pass design screening.

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Module 1 — Closure Pressure and Stress State

Capabilities

• Fracture closure pressure from ISIP (instantaneous shut-in pressure)
• G-function analysis for closure identification
• Net treating pressure calculation
• Fracture gradient from LOT/XLOT interpretation
• Step-rate test interpretation for minimum horizontal stress

Key Pressure Definitions

Pressure	Symbol	Definition
Breakdown pressure	P_bd	Wellbore pressure at which fracture initiates
Instantaneous shut-in pressure	ISIP	Wellbore pressure immediately after pumps stop
Fracture closure pressure	P_c	Pressure at which fracture faces close on proppant
Net pressure	p_net	p_treating - p_closure (excess above closure)
Fracture extension pressure	P_ext	Pressure required to propagate open fracture
Minimum horizontal stress	S_hmin	Equal to closure pressure (first approximation)

ISIP Analysis

The ISIP is measured from pump-off pressure fall-off and provides the best field estimate of minimum horizontal stress:

P_c ≈ ISIP  (first approximation, valid when fluid loss is fast)

More precisely, ISIP is slightly above P_c because some net pressure remains immediately after shut-in. P_c is found from the pressure fall-off inflection.

Typical Marcellus ISIP/closure gradient: 0.65 - 0.75 psi/ft TVD

def closure_from_ISIP(ISIP_psi, depth_ft, correction_psi=50):
    """
    Estimate closure pressure from ISIP.
    correction_psi: typical 30-100 psi correction (conservative use 50 psi).
    """
    P_c = ISIP_psi - correction_psi
    gradient = P_c / depth_ft
    print(f"ISIP: {ISIP_psi} psi")
    print(f"Estimated closure pressure: {P_c} psi")
    print(f"Closure gradient: {gradient:.4f} psi/ft ({gradient/0.052:.2f} ppg)")
    return P_c

# Example: Marcellus at 7,500 ft, ISIP = 5,400 psi
P_c = closure_from_ISIP(5400, 7500)

Net Pressure

p_net = p_bh_treating - P_c

Where p_bh_treating = surface treating pressure + hydrostatic head - friction losses.

Typical net pressures:

• Slickwater frac: 100-500 psi (low net pressure, long/thin fracture)
• Cross-linked gel frac: 500-2,000 psi (higher net, more width)
• Refrac: variable, often higher than initial due to elevated stress shadow

Fracture Gradient from LOT

Leak-off test gives minimum horizontal stress:

FG (psi/ft) = P_LOT / depth_TVD

Step-rate test: plot injection rate vs surface pressure; slope change indicates fracture extension. The pressure at the rate/pressure inflection = fracture extension pressure.

S_hmin ≈ P_extension - (friction pressure + wellbore hydrostatic correction)

G-Function Analysis (Nolte)

The G-function is a dimensionless time function used to identify fracture closure from pressure fall-off data:

G(Delta_t_D) = (4/3) * [(1 + Delta_t_D)^(3/2) - Delta_t_D^(3/2) - 1]

Where Delta_t_D = Delta_t / t_p (ratio of shut-in time to pump time).

Closure identification on G-dP/dG plot:

• Straight line through origin on G * dP/dG vs G: normal fluid loss, closure at deviation
• Concave up: fracture tip extension after shut-in (pressure-dependent leakoff)
• Concave down: fracture height recession or complex geometry

import math

def g_function(t_shutin, t_pump):
    """Calculate G-function value at a given shut-in time."""
    dt_D = t_shutin / t_pump
    G = (4/3) * ((1 + dt_D)**1.5 - dt_D**1.5 - 1)
    return G

# Generate G-function table for t_pump = 45 min
t_pump = 45.0  # minutes
print("t_shutin (min) | G-function")
print("-" * 30)
for t in [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120]:
    G = g_function(t, t_pump)
    print(f"{t:14.0f} | {G:.4f}")

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Module 2 — PKN (Perkins-Kern-Nordgren) Model

Capabilities

• Fracture half-length as a function of injection time and rate
• Maximum and average fracture width at wellbore
• Fracture volume and surface area
• Sensitivity to formation properties and fluid viscosity
• Valid when: fracture half-length x_f >> fracture height h (long, thin fractures)

PKN Governing Equations

The PKN model assumes a fixed elliptical vertical cross-section and plane strain in the horizontal direction.

Plane-strain modulus:

E' = E / (1 - nu^2)

Fracture half-length (PKN, simplified Carter/Kemp form for constant rate Q):

x_f(t) = [E' * Q * t / (2 * mu * h^2)]^(1/4)  [in consistent SI or field units]

Note: This is the time-dependent propagation estimate assuming no fluid loss. With fluid loss (efficiency eta < 1), multiply the injected volume by eta before computing the fracture volume.

Maximum wellbore width (at x=0):

w_max = 2.52 * (mu * Q * x_f / E')^(1/4)

Average width:

w_avg = (pi/4) * w_max ≈ 0.785 * w_max

Fracture volume:

V_f = (pi/4) * w_max * 2 * h * x_f  =  pi/2 * w_max * h * x_f

Workflow — PKN Fracture Geometry

1. Inputs: E (Young's modulus), nu (Poisson's ratio), Q (injection rate), mu (fluid viscosity), h (fracture height), t (injection time)
2. Compute E' = E/(1-nu^2)
3. Estimate x_f from propagation equation
4. Compute w_max and w_avg
5. Compute V_f; check V_f <= Q*t (material balance)
6. Adjust for fluid efficiency if C_L is known

Example — Marcellus Slickwater PKN Calculation

Typical Appalachian/Marcellus inputs for slickwater:

• E = 30 GPa = 4,351,000 psi (Marcellus shale)
• nu = 0.25
• Q = 50 bbl/min = 3.15 ft^3/s
• mu = 1 cp = 0.001 Pa-s (slickwater ≈ water)
• h = 150 ft = 45.7 m (fracture height, net pay)
• Injection time: 90 min (single stage)

import math

# ---- SI UNITS THROUGHOUT ----
E_pa = 30e9         # Pa
nu = 0.25
Q_m3s = 50 * 0.1590 / 60  # bbl/min -> m^3/s   (1 bbl = 0.1590 m^3)
mu_pas = 0.001      # Pa-s (slickwater)
h_m = 150 * 0.3048  # ft -> m
t_s = 90 * 60       # minutes -> seconds

# Plane-strain modulus
E_prime = E_pa / (1 - nu**2)
print(f"E' (plane-strain modulus): {E_prime/1e9:.2f} GPa")

# PKN fracture half-length (no fluid loss assumed)
# From Nordgren (1972): x_f = [E'*Q*t / (2*mu*h^2)]^(1/4)
x_f_m = (E_prime * Q_m3s * t_s / (2 * mu_pas * h_m**2))**0.25
x_f_ft = x_f_m / 0.3048
print(f"\nFracture half-length: {x_f_m:.1f} m = {x_f_ft:.0f} ft")

# Maximum wellbore width
w_max_m = 2.52 * (mu_pas * Q_m3s * x_f_m / E_prime)**0.25
w_max_in = w_max_m / 0.0254
print(f"Max wellbore width (w_max): {w_max_m*1000:.2f} mm = {w_max_in:.3f} in")

# Average width
w_avg_m = (math.pi / 4) * w_max_m
w_avg_in = w_avg_m / 0.0254
print(f"Average fracture width: {w_avg_m*1000:.2f} mm = {w_avg_in:.4f} in")

# Fracture volume
V_f_m3 = (math.pi / 2) * w_max_m * h_m * x_f_m
V_f_bbl = V_f_m3 / 0.1590
V_injected_bbl = Q_m3s / 0.1590 * 60 * t_s / 60  # Q in bbl/min * time in min
print(f"\nFracture volume: {V_f_m3:.1f} m^3 = {V_f_bbl:.0f} bbl")
print(f"Total injected volume: {V_injected_bbl:.0f} bbl")
fluid_eff = V_f_bbl / V_injected_bbl
print(f"Implied fluid efficiency: {fluid_eff:.0%}")
print("(>100% is non-physical — need to include fluid loss in propagation model)")

PKN Sensitivity Table

Typical PKN output for Marcellus slickwater at 90-min injection:

Parameter	Low	Base	High
E (GPa)	20	30	40
Q (bbl/min)	30	50	80
h (ft)	100	150	200
mu (cp)	0.5	1	5
x_f result (ft)	500	800	1,400
w_max result (in)	0.04	0.07	0.15

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Module 3 — KGD (Khristianovic-Geertsma-de Klerk) Model

Capabilities

• Fracture geometry for near-wellbore, height-dominated fractures
• Compares to PKN for model selection
• Valid when: fracture height h >> fracture half-length x_f

KGD Governing Equations

The KGD model assumes plane strain in the vertical direction and a rectangular cross-section that is constant along the fracture length.

Fracture half-length (KGD):

x_f(t) = [E' * Q^3 * t^3 / (16 * mu * h^2)]^(1/6)

Maximum fracture width at wellbore:

w_wb = 2.36 * (mu * Q * x_f / E')^(1/3)

Average width:

w_avg = (pi/4) * w_wb

Model Selection Guide

Condition	Preferred Model
x_f >> h (long, thin fracture)	PKN
h >> x_f (short, height-dominated)	KGD
x_f ~ h (transitional)	Neither is rigorous; use numerical
All cases for design	Numerical simulator (preferred)

Appalachian Marcellus context: Large slickwater stages (50-90 bbl/min, 1,500+ bbl/stage) tend toward PKN geometry. Mini-fracs and diagnostic injections may be better represented by KGD early in treatment.

import math

def kgd_geometry(E_pa, nu, Q_m3s, mu_pas, h_m, t_s):
    """KGD fracture geometry. SI units throughout."""
    E_prime = E_pa / (1 - nu**2)
    x_f = (E_prime * Q_m3s**3 * t_s**3 / (16 * mu_pas * h_m**2))**(1/6)
    w_wb = 2.36 * (mu_pas * Q_m3s * x_f / E_prime)**(1/3)
    w_avg = (math.pi / 4) * w_wb
    return x_f, w_wb, w_avg

# KGD near-wellbore diagnostic injection (5 bbl/min, 10 min, h=150 ft)
E_pa = 30e9; nu = 0.25
Q_m3s = 5 * 0.1590 / 60   # 5 bbl/min
mu_pas = 0.001
h_m = 150 * 0.3048
t_s = 10 * 60

x_f, w_wb, w_avg = kgd_geometry(E_pa, nu, Q_m3s, mu_pas, h_m, t_s)
print(f"KGD model:")
print(f"  x_f = {x_f/0.3048:.0f} ft, w_wb = {w_wb*1000:.2f} mm = {w_wb/0.0254:.4f} in")
print(f"  w_avg = {w_avg*1000:.2f} mm")
print(f"  h/x_f ratio = {h_m/x_f:.2f} {'(KGD valid: h>>x_f)' if h_m/x_f > 2 else '(PKN may be more appropriate)'}")

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Module 4 — Fluid Efficiency and Fluid Loss

Capabilities

• Fluid efficiency calculation from injection and fracture volumes
• Carter fluid loss coefficient C_L
• Pad volume requirement for target efficiency
• G-function spurt loss estimation
• PNGE 341 fluid loss coefficient derivation

Fluid Efficiency

eta = V_fracture / V_injected

Efficiency Range	Interpretation
eta > 0.7	Low leakoff (tight shale, minimal fluid loss)
eta = 0.4-0.7	Moderate leakoff (typical Marcellus slickwater)
eta < 0.4	High leakoff (high-perm or naturally fractured rock)

For Marcellus slickwater: eta ≈ 0.4-0.6 is typical due to reactivation of natural fractures and interaction with adjacent shale laminae.

Carter Fluid Loss

The Carter model describes fluid loss through the fracture face as a function of leakoff area and time:

dV_L/dA = C_L / sqrt(t - tau)

Integrated: total leakoff volume:

V_L = 2 * A_frac * C_L * sqrt(t)    (simplified, no spurt)

With spurt loss S_p (volume per unit area lost instantly when new fracture area is created):

V_L = 2 * A_frac * C_L * sqrt(t) + S_p * A_frac

Typical C_L values (slickwater in shale):

• 0.0001 - 0.001 ft/sqrt(min): low leakoff shale (Marcellus, Utica)
• 0.001 - 0.005 ft/sqrt(min): moderate leakoff
• 0.005 - 0.01 ft/sqrt(min): high leakoff (carbonates, highly fractured)

Pad Volume Design

To achieve target efficiency eta_target, the pad fraction (fraction of total volume that is pad fluid) is:

V_pad / V_total = (1 - eta_target) / (1 + eta_target)    (Nolte's equation)

def pad_fraction(eta_target):
    """
    Calculate required pad fraction for a target fluid efficiency.
    eta_target: desired efficiency at end of job (0-1)
    """
    f_pad = (1 - eta_target) / (1 + eta_target)
    return f_pad

# Design table: pad fraction vs target efficiency
print("Target Efficiency | Pad Fraction | Pad % of Total Volume")
print("-" * 55)
for eta in [0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9]:
    fp = pad_fraction(eta)
    print(f"{eta:17.1%} | {fp:12.3f} | {fp:20.1%}")

Nolte G-Function for Fluid Loss

From G-function analysis (Module 1), the slope of the straight-line portion on G * dP/dG vs G gives the fluid loss coefficient:

C_L = -slope_GPDG * sqrt(pi * Q / (16 * E' * h * t_p))  [consistent SI]

This is computed during post-frac analysis from the actual pressure fall-off data.

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Module 5 — Proppant Transport and Pack Design

Capabilities

• Stokes settling velocity for proppant in fracturing fluid
• Hindered settling correction for proppant concentration
• Propped fracture conductivity (k_f * w_f)
• Dimensionless fracture conductivity F_cd and optimization
• Proppant schedule design (ramped concentration)

Stokes Settling Velocity

For a single proppant grain in fluid at low Reynolds number:

v_s = d_p^2 * (rho_p - rho_f) * g / (18 * mu)   [SI: m/s]

Where:

• d_p = particle diameter (m)
• rho_p = proppant density (kg/m^3)
• rho_f = fluid density (kg/m^3)
• g = 9.81 m/s^2
• mu = fluid viscosity (Pa-s)

Field unit version (v_s in ft/s):

v_s = 0.000267 * d_p_in^2 * (SG_p - SG_f) / mu_cp

Where d_p_in is proppant diameter in inches, SG is specific gravity.

Typical Proppant Properties

Proppant Type	SG	d_p (in)	Crush Strength
Ottawa 20/40 sand	2.65	0.0331	4,000 psi
Resin-coated sand	2.65	0.0331	6,000 psi
Lightweight ceramic	2.71	0.025	10,000 psi
Intermediate ceramic	3.27	0.025	14,000 psi
Bauxite	3.6	0.020	20,000 psi

Settling Velocity Example

import math

def stokes_settling_field(d_p_in, SG_p, SG_f, mu_cp):
    """
    Stokes settling velocity in field units.
    d_p_in: proppant diameter in inches
    SG_p, SG_f: specific gravity of proppant and fluid
    mu_cp: fluid viscosity in cp
    Returns: v_s in ft/min
    """
    # Convert to SI
    d_p_m = d_p_in * 0.0254
    rho_p = SG_p * 1000  # kg/m^3
    rho_f = SG_f * 1000
    mu_pas = mu_cp * 0.001
    g = 9.81

    v_s_ms = d_p_m**2 * (rho_p - rho_f) * g / (18 * mu_pas)
    v_s_ftmin = v_s_ms * 3.281 * 60  # m/s to ft/min
    return v_s_ms, v_s_ftmin

# Proppant comparison in slickwater vs cross-linked gel
print("Proppant Settling Velocity Comparison")
print("-" * 65)
fluids = [("Slickwater", 1.0, 1.0), ("Linear gel", 50, 1.01), ("X-link gel", 500, 1.02)]
proppants = [("20/40 Ottawa sand", 0.0331, 2.65), ("20/40 Ceramic", 0.025, 3.27)]

for p_name, d_p, SG_p in proppants:
    print(f"\n{p_name}:")
    for f_name, mu_cp, SG_f in fluids:
        v_ms, v_ftmin = stokes_settling_field(d_p, SG_p, SG_f, mu_cp)
        print(f"  {f_name:15s} (mu={mu_cp:4.0f} cp): {v_ftmin:.3f} ft/min = {v_ms*1000:.2f} mm/s")

Hindered Settling (Richardson-Zaki)

At proppant volume concentrations above ~5%, grains interfere:

v_hindered = v_s * (1 - phi_p)^n

Where phi_p = proppant volume fraction, n ≈ 4.65 for Re < 0.2 (Stokes regime).

Propped Fracture Conductivity

Conductivity of the proppant pack:

F_c = k_f * w_f    (md-ft or md-in, depending on convention)

Where k_f = proppant pack permeability (md), w_f = propped fracture width (in).

Kozeny-Carman permeability for proppant pack:

k_f = d_p^2 * phi_p^3 / (180 * (1 - phi_p)^2)   [m^2, d_p in m]

Convert: 1 m^2 = 1.013e15 md.

Typical proppant pack k_f values (at low stress):

• Ottawa 20/40 sand: 200,000 - 400,000 md
• Ceramic 20/40: 300,000 - 500,000 md
• At 7,000 psi closure: Ottawa sand drops to ~50,000-150,000 md (embedment/crush)

Dimensionless Fracture Conductivity

The dimensionless fracture conductivity determines whether the fracture is effectively infinite-conductivity (IFC) or finite-conductivity:

F_cd = k_f * w_f / (k * x_f)

Where k = formation permeability (md), x_f = fracture half-length (ft).

F_cd Value	Fracture Performance	Recommendation
F_cd < 1	Severely limited by fracture conductivity	Increase proppant concentration or use higher-k proppant
F_cd = 1-10	Finite conductivity — production limited by fracture	Optimize; increase conductivity if economic
F_cd ≈ 10	Near-optimal for many cases (Cinco-Ley)	Good design target
F_cd > 100	Effectively infinite conductivity	Formation permeability is the limit

Marcellus context: With k ≈ 0.0001-0.001 md, x_f ≈ 500-1,000 ft, and k_f*w_f ≈ 500-2,000 md-ft, F_cd ranges from 500-20,000 — effectively infinite conductivity. Conductivity is rarely the limiting factor in ultralow-perm shale.

def dimensionless_conductivity(k_f_md, w_f_in, k_md, x_f_ft):
    """Calculate dimensionless fracture conductivity."""
    w_f_ft = w_f_in / 12
    F_cd = (k_f_md * w_f_ft) / (k_md * x_f_ft)
    if F_cd < 1:
        assess = "POOR — fracture conductivity limiting"
    elif F_cd < 10:
        assess = "FINITE conductivity — optimize"
    elif F_cd < 100:
        assess = "NEAR-OPTIMAL"
    else:
        assess = "EFFECTIVELY infinite conductivity"
    return F_cd, assess

# Marcellus example
F_cd, note = dimensionless_conductivity(
    k_f_md=100000, w_f_in=0.2, k_md=0.0005, x_f_ft=800
)
print(f"F_cd = {F_cd:.0f}: {note}")

Proppant Schedule Design

A ramped proppant schedule (starting with pad, then increasing concentration) maintains transport efficiency and prevents premature screen-out:

Typical Marcellus slickwater schedule (1,500 bbl total):

Stage	Volume (bbl)	Proppant Conc. (ppg)	Proppant (lb)
Pad (slickwater)	500	0	0
0.25 ppg	200	0.25	10,500
0.50 ppg	200	0.50	21,000
0.75 ppg	200	0.75	31,500
1.0 ppg	150	1.00	25,200
Flush	150	0	0
Total	1,400	—	88,200

Where ppg = pounds of proppant per gallon of fluid.

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Module 6 — Nolte-Smith Pressure Diagnostics

Capabilities

• Log-log treating pressure plot construction and interpretation
• Pressure derivative analysis for fracture mode identification
• Fracture containment assessment
• Extension vs. height growth diagnosis

Nolte-Smith Log-Log Plot

Plot log(p_net) vs log(time) during injection to diagnose fracture behavior:

Log-Log Slope	Fracture Behavior	Interpretation
Slope = 0	Constant net pressure	Normal fracture extension (PKN-like)
Slope = +1/8 to +1/4	Gently increasing	Slightly restricted tip extension
Slope = +1	Rapidly increasing	Restricted height growth, tip screenout, or high fluid loss
Slope = -1/4 to -1/2	Decreasing	Height growth without length (T-shaped fracture)
Slope = -1	Rapidly decreasing	Unrestricted fracture height growth out of zone
Abrupt spike	Sharp increase	Near-wellbore screen-out or perforation plugging

Procedure:

1. Calculate bottomhole treating pressure (BHTP) at each time step: BHTP = surface treating pressure + hydrostatic head - friction losses
2. Calculate net pressure: p_net = BHTP - P_c (use ISIP-estimated closure)
3. Plot log(p_net) vs log(injection time)
4. Compute log-log slope over rolling window; identify trend

import math

def nolte_smith_slope(times, p_net_values):
    """
    Compute log-log slope between consecutive points on Nolte-Smith plot.
    times: list of injection times (min)
    p_net_values: list of net pressures (psi)
    Returns: list of (time_mid, slope) tuples
    """
    slopes = []
    for i in range(1, len(times)):
        if times[i] > 0 and times[i-1] > 0 and p_net_values[i] > 0 and p_net_values[i-1] > 0:
            d_log_t = math.log10(times[i]) - math.log10(times[i-1])
            d_log_p = math.log10(p_net_values[i]) - math.log10(p_net_values[i-1])
            if abs(d_log_t) > 1e-10:
                slope = d_log_p / d_log_t
                t_mid = math.sqrt(times[i] * times[i-1])  # geometric mean
                slopes.append((t_mid, slope))
    return slopes

# Example treating pressure data (synthetic Marcellus stage)
times_min = [1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90]
p_net_psi  = [200, 250, 300, 320, 340, 350, 380, 450, 700]

slopes = nolte_smith_slope(times_min, p_net_psi)
print("t_mid (min) | Log-Log Slope | Interpretation")
print("-" * 55)
for t, s in slopes:
    if s < -0.5:
        interp = "Height growth (out of zone)"
    elif s < 0:
        interp = "Height recession or T-shape"
    elif s < 0.125:
        interp = "Normal PKN extension"
    elif s < 0.5:
        interp = "Restricted extension"
    else:
        interp = "Restricted / near screen-out"
    print(f"{t:11.1f} | {s:13.3f} | {interp}")

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Workflow Summary

Step 1 — Identify Calculation Type

User Request	Module
Closure pressure, ISIP, net pressure, stress gradient	Module 1 — Closure
Fracture length, width (PKN)	Module 2 — PKN
Near-wellbore fracture geometry (KGD)	Module 3 — KGD
Fluid efficiency, fluid loss, pad design	Module 4 — Fluid Efficiency
Proppant settling, conductivity, F_cd, schedule	Module 5 — Proppant
Treating pressure analysis, log-log slope	Module 6 — Nolte-Smith

Step 2 — Gather Inputs

Collect required parameters. Default to Marcellus/Appalachian typical values when user omits inputs. Always state assumptions explicitly.

Default Marcellus/Appalachian parameters:

Parameter	Symbol	Typical Value	Unit
Young's modulus	E	30	GPa
Poisson's ratio	nu	0.25	—
Fracture height	h	150	ft
Injection rate	Q	50	bbl/min
Fluid viscosity (slickwater)	mu	1	cp
Closure pressure gradient	p_c/z	0.70	psi/ft
Formation permeability	k	0.0005	md
Depth (Marcellus, WV)	TVD	7,000-8,500	ft

Step 3 — Calculate

Use Python (stdlib: math, statistics). Work in SI for calculations, then convert final answers to both field and SI units. Show every step.

Step 4 — Output

1. Input parameters table — all values with units and source (user/default)
2. Step-by-step calculation — equations, substitutions, intermediate results
3. Results table — computed values in field and SI units
4. Design interpretation — is the design adequate? What controls performance?
5. Caveats — model validity range, simplifying assumptions, when to use full simulator

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Output Format

## [Calculation Title]

### Input Parameters
| Parameter | Symbol | Value | Unit | Source |
|-----------|--------|-------|------|--------|
| ... | ... | ... | ... | User / Marcellus default |

### Governing Model: [PKN / KGD / Nolte-Smith / etc.]
[State why this model applies and its validity conditions]

### Calculations
Step 1: [equation name and formula]
  [substituted values with units -> result with units]

### Results
| Property | Value (Field) | Value (SI) |
|----------|--------------|------------|
| ... | ... | ... |

**Summary:** [2-3 sentences on fracture geometry and design adequacy]

**Caveats:**
- [Model validity: e.g., "PKN valid only when x_f >> h"]
- [Key assumption: e.g., "No fluid loss assumed — actual x_f will be shorter"]
- [Recommend numerical simulation for final stage design]

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Error Handling

Condition	Action
Fluid efficiency > 1	Non-physical; check if fluid loss is excluded — warn and restate
x_f ~ h (PKN/KGD boundary)	Warn that neither model is rigorous; recommend Penny-shaped or numerical
F_cd < 1	Flag as conductivity-limited design; suggest higher proppant or rate
Settling velocity > fracture propagation velocity	Warn of possible proppant bridging; suggest higher viscosity fluid
Missing formation properties	List missing values; use documented Marcellus/Appalachian ranges

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Units Reference

Quantity	Field Unit	SI Unit	Conversion
Pressure	psi	MPa	1 psi = 0.006895 MPa
Modulus	psi	GPa	1e6 psi = 6.895 GPa
Rate	bbl/min	m^3/s	1 bbl/min = 2.65e-3 m^3/s
Viscosity	cp	Pa-s	1 cp = 0.001 Pa-s
Length	ft	m	1 ft = 0.3048 m
Width	in or mm	m	1 in = 0.0254 m
Permeability	md	m^2	1 md = 9.869e-16 m^2
Conductivity	md-ft	md-m	1 md-ft = 0.3048 md-m
Proppant conc.	ppg	kg/m^3	1 ppg = 119.8 kg/m^3
C_L	ft/sqrt(min)	m/sqrt(s)	1 ft/min^0.5 = 0.0548 m/s^0.5

See references/equations.md for full derivation context and field-unit forms.