Identity

exFAT: Kernel-native since 5.4 (module exfat). Userspace tools: exfatprogs (preferred, replaces exfat-fuse). No daemon.
NTFS (ntfs-3g): FUSE-based read-write driver. Slow but battle-tested. Install: ntfs-3g.
NTFS (NTFS3): Kernel-native read-write driver since 5.15. Significantly faster than ntfs-3g. Mount with -t ntfs3.
No daemon: Both are mount-time configured — no background service to manage.
Distro install:
- Debian/Ubuntu: apt install exfatprogs ntfs-3g
- RHEL/Fedora: dnf install exfatprogs ntfs-3g
- Arch: pacman -S exfatprogs ntfs-3g

Key Operations

Operation	Command
Detect filesystem type	`blkid /dev/sdX1` or `file -s /dev/sdX1`
List partitions and sizes	`lsblk -f` (shows fs type, label, UUID)
List all disks with partition table	`sudo fdisk -l`
Mount exFAT	`sudo mount -t exfat /dev/sdX1 /mnt/usb`
Mount exFAT with user permissions	`sudo mount -t exfat -o uid=1000,gid=1000,umask=022 /dev/sdX1 /mnt/usb`
Mount NTFS (ntfs-3g)	`sudo mount -t ntfs-3g /dev/sdX1 /mnt/usb`
Mount NTFS (kernel NTFS3, Linux 5.15+)	`sudo mount -t ntfs3 /dev/sdX1 /mnt/usb`
Mount NTFS with user permissions	`sudo mount -t ntfs3 -o uid=1000,gid=1000,umask=022 /dev/sdX1 /mnt/usb`
Format as exFAT	`sudo mkfs.exfat -n "LABEL" /dev/sdX1`
Format as NTFS	`sudo mkntfs -f -L "LABEL" /dev/sdX1` (fast format, skip zeroing)
Check and repair exFAT	`sudo fsck.exfat /dev/sdX1` (unmounted)
Check and repair NTFS	`sudo ntfsfix /dev/sdX1` (clears dirty bit; run unmounted)
Set fstab entry for auto-mount	See `references/mount-options.md`
Unmount safely	`udisksctl unmount -b /dev/sdX1` (desktop) or `sudo umount /mnt/usb`
Check drive health	`sudo smartctl -a /dev/sdX`
Adjust permissions at mount time	Add `uid=`, `gid=`, `umask=` to mount options
Add udev rule for auto-mount	See `references/mount-options.md`

Drive mounted read-write at target mountpoint.
Files accessible to the target user without sudo (requires uid/gid mount options — exFAT and NTFS have no per-file permission bits beyond what the mount supplies).
lsblk -f shows the correct fstype and mountpoint.

lsblk -f /dev/sdX1 → shows exfat or ntfs under FSTYPE and a non-empty MOUNTPOINT
mount | grep /dev/sdX1 → confirms mount options (check uid, gid, rw)
touch /mnt/usb/testfile && rm /mnt/usb/testfile → confirms read-write access as the target user

Symptom	Likely cause	Check/Fix
NTFS mounts read-only, `read-only filesystem` errors	Windows fast startup left the volume dirty (hibernation file present)	Boot Windows fully and shut down (not restart, not hibernate); or `sudo ntfsfix /dev/sdX1` to clear dirty bit as a workaround
`Permission denied` accessing files	Missing `uid`/`gid` mount options — files owned by root	Remount with `-o uid=$(id -u),gid=$(id -g),umask=022`
`wrong fs type, bad option, bad superblock`	Missing kernel module or userspace package	`lsmod
`modprobe: FATAL: Module exfat not found`	Kernel < 5.4 or module not built	Install `exfat-fuse` as fallback or upgrade kernel
Slow write speed on NTFS	ntfs-3g is FUSE-based (userspace overhead)	Use kernel NTFS3 driver: `mount -t ntfs3` (requires Linux 5.15+)
NTFS metadata corruption after unclean unmount	Journal not replayed properly	`sudo ntfsfix /dev/sdX1`; then remount
Drive won't unmount: `target is busy`	A process has an open file or the shell is inside the mountpoint	`lsof +D /mnt/usb` to find the process; `cd` out of the mountpoint; then unmount
exFAT volume not recognized on macOS/Windows after Linux format	Created without a partition table, or mkfs.exfat targeting the disk not a partition	Format `/dev/sdX1` (a partition), not `/dev/sdX` (the disk)

Windows fast startup (hibernate-on-shutdown) leaves the NTFS volume in a dirty state. Linux mounts it read-only. The only clean fix is to boot Windows, disable fast startup (Control Panel → Power Options → Choose what the power buttons do → Turn off fast startup), and then shut down normally. ntfsfix clears the dirty bit but does not safely replay the Windows journal.
ntfs-3g is FUSE-based: All I/O crosses the userspace/kernel boundary. For frequent or large transfers, use the kernel NTFS3 driver (-t ntfs3) on Linux 5.15+. Performance is dramatically better.
exFAT has no Unix permissions: Every file appears owned by the uid/gid specified at mount time with the umask applied uniformly. You cannot chmod individual files. Plan the mount options upfront.
FAT32 4 GB file limit: If someone asks why a large file copy fails to a FAT32 drive, the filesystem does not support files larger than 4 GB. Use exFAT (no practical file size limit) or NTFS instead.
Always sync before removing: sync && udisksctl unmount -b /dev/sdX1 before unplugging. Pulling a drive with dirty buffers causes corruption. On desktop systems, udisksctl is safer than raw umount because it also powers down the drive after unmounting.

See references/ for:

mount-options.md — mount options table, fstab examples, udev rules, udisksctl vs mount
docs.md — upstream documentation and wiki links