PostgreSQL Fundamentals

Use When

• PostgreSQL core concepts for developers and DBAs coming from MySQL or MSSQL. Covers terminology differences (cluster/instance, role/user, tuple/row), unique data types (TEXT, TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, ARRAY, JSONB, UUID), tools (psql, pgAdmin, DBeaver), roles and privileges (GRANT/REVOKE, HBA), object types (schemas, sequences, views, materialized views, domains), extensions ecosystem, and server configuration. Pair with postgresql-advanced-sql, postgresql-performance, postgresql-administration for complete coverage.
• The task needs reusable judgment, domain constraints, or a proven workflow rather than ad hoc advice.

Do Not Use When

• The task is unrelated to postgresql-fundamentals or would be better handled by a more specific companion skill.
• The request only needs a trivial answer and none of this skill's constraints or references materially help.

Required Inputs

• Gather relevant project context, constraints, and the concrete problem to solve.
• Confirm the desired deliverable: design, code, review, migration plan, audit, or documentation.

Workflow

• Read this SKILL.md first, then load only the referenced deep-dive files that are necessary for the task.
• Apply the ordered guidance, checklists, and decision rules in this skill instead of cherry-picking isolated snippets.
• Produce the deliverable with assumptions, risks, and follow-up work made explicit when they matter.

Quality Standards

• Keep outputs execution-oriented, concise, and aligned with the repository's baseline engineering standards.
• Preserve compatibility with existing project conventions unless the skill explicitly requires a stronger standard.
• Prefer deterministic, reviewable steps over vague advice or tool-specific magic.

Anti-Patterns

• Treating examples as copy-paste truth without checking fit, constraints, or failure modes.
• Loading every reference file by default instead of using progressive disclosure.

Outputs

• A concrete result that fits the task: implementation guidance, review findings, architecture decisions, templates, or generated artifacts.
• Clear assumptions, tradeoffs, or unresolved gaps when the task cannot be completed from available context alone.
• References used, companion skills, or follow-up actions when they materially improve execution.

Evidence Produced

Category	Artifact	Format	Example
Data safety	PostgreSQL schema and constraints register	Markdown doc per skill-composition-standards/references/entity-model-template.md	docs/data/postgres-schema-orders.md

References

• Use the links and companion skills already referenced in this file when deeper context is needed.

Why PostgreSQL

• ACID by default — full transactional integrity, no MyISAM-like footguns
• Extensible — add types, operators, index methods, FDWs, procedural languages
• Standard SQL compliance — lateral joins, window functions, CTEs, recursive queries
• Rich ecosystem — PostGIS, pgvector, pg_cron, timescaledb, Citus
• Open source governance — no vendor lock-in, transparent commitfest release process

Terminology Differences from MySQL / MSSQL

PostgreSQL	MySQL / MSSQL Equivalent	Notes
Cluster	Instance / Server	A running PostgreSQL process serving multiple databases
Database	Database / Catalog	Strict isolation — no cross-database joins
Schema	Schema / Namespace	A namespace within a database (default: public)
Role	User / Login	Unified concept — users and groups are both roles
Tuple	Row	Internal term; "row" is fine in SQL
TOAST	Row overflow	Automatic out-of-line storage for large values
COPY	BULK INSERT	Fast bulk data loading
SERIAL/IDENTITY	AUTO_INCREMENT	Use GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY (SQL standard)
LIMIT	TOP / FETCH FIRST	LIMIT n OFFSET m syntax
ILIKE	LIKE (case-insensitive)	PostgreSQL is case-sensitive by default

Data Types Unique to PostgreSQL

Text and Strings

-- Use TEXT — no length penalty, same storage as VARCHAR
CREATE TABLE articles (
    id      BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    title   TEXT NOT NULL,
    body    TEXT
);

-- VARCHAR(n) only when you need a constraint, not for performance

Date and Time

-- Always use TIMESTAMPTZ (stores in UTC, displays in session timezone)
CREATE TABLE events (
    id         BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    created_at TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL DEFAULT NOW(),
    scheduled  TIMESTAMPTZ
);

-- Interval arithmetic
SELECT NOW() + INTERVAL '30 days';
SELECT AGE(TIMESTAMPTZ '2026-01-01', NOW());   -- returns interval
SELECT DATE_PART('year', NOW());               -- extract year
SELECT EXTRACT(DOW FROM NOW());               -- day of week 0-6

Arrays

CREATE TABLE products (
    id    BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    tags  TEXT[]
);

INSERT INTO products (tags) VALUES (ARRAY['electronics', 'sale']);

-- Query: any element matches
SELECT * FROM products WHERE 'sale' = ANY(tags);

-- Query: contains all
SELECT * FROM products WHERE tags @> ARRAY['electronics'];

-- Append element
UPDATE products SET tags = tags || 'clearance' WHERE id = 1;

JSONB

CREATE TABLE configs (
    id      BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    payload JSONB NOT NULL
);

-- Insert
INSERT INTO configs (payload) VALUES ('{"theme": "dark", "lang": "en"}');

-- Query operators
SELECT payload->>'theme' FROM configs;                   -- text
SELECT payload->'settings'->>'notifications' FROM configs; -- nested text

-- Filter
SELECT * FROM configs WHERE payload @> '{"theme": "dark"}';
SELECT * FROM configs WHERE payload ? 'theme';           -- key exists

-- Index (critical for performance)
CREATE INDEX configs_payload_gin ON configs USING GIN (payload);

UUID

CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS "pgcrypto";   -- or "uuid-ossp"

CREATE TABLE users (
    id    UUID PRIMARY KEY DEFAULT gen_random_uuid(),
    email TEXT UNIQUE NOT NULL
);

Enums

CREATE TYPE order_status AS ENUM ('pending', 'processing', 'shipped', 'delivered', 'cancelled');

CREATE TABLE orders (
    id     BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    status order_status NOT NULL DEFAULT 'pending'
);

-- Add a new value (cannot remove or reorder)
ALTER TYPE order_status ADD VALUE 'refunded' AFTER 'delivered';

Tools

psql — Command Line

# Connect
psql -h localhost -U postgres -d mydb
psql postgresql://user:password@host:5432/dbname

# Key meta-commands
\l              -- list databases
\c mydb         -- connect to database
\dt             -- list tables in current schema
\dt schema.*    -- list tables in schema
\d tablename    -- describe table (columns, indexes, constraints)
\di             -- list indexes
\df             -- list functions
\du             -- list roles
\x              -- toggle expanded output (great for wide rows)
\timing         -- show query execution time
\e              -- open query in $EDITOR
\i script.sql   -- execute SQL file
\copy table TO 'file.csv' CSV HEADER   -- export
\q              -- quit

pgAdmin 4

Web-based GUI. Best for: schema browsing, query editor with EXPLAIN visualiser, backup/restore wizard. Access at http://localhost:5050 (Docker) or system install.

DBeaver

Cross-platform GUI. Supports multiple database types. Best for: data comparison, ER diagrams, CSV import/export, SSH tunnelling.

Roles and Privileges

Role Attributes

-- Create a login role (user)
CREATE ROLE app_user WITH
    LOGIN
    PASSWORD 'secure_password'
    NOSUPERUSER
    NOCREATEDB
    NOCREATEROLE
    CONNECTION LIMIT 20;

-- Create a group role (no login)
CREATE ROLE readonly_group NOLOGIN;

-- Grant group membership
GRANT readonly_group TO app_user;

Privilege System

-- Database privileges
GRANT CONNECT ON DATABASE mydb TO app_user;
GRANT CREATE ON DATABASE mydb TO developer_role;

-- Schema privileges
GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMA public TO app_user;
GRANT CREATE ON SCHEMA public TO developer_role;

-- Table privileges
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO app_user;
GRANT SELECT ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO readonly_group;

-- Default privileges (apply to future objects)
ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES IN SCHEMA public
    GRANT SELECT ON TABLES TO readonly_group;

-- Revoke
REVOKE INSERT ON orders FROM app_user;

Host-Based Authentication (pg_hba.conf)

# TYPE  DATABASE  USER       ADDRESS         METHOD
local   all       postgres                   peer
host    mydb      app_user   192.168.1.0/24  scram-sha-256
host    all       all        0.0.0.0/0       reject

Changes to pg_hba.conf require SELECT pg_reload_conf(); or service restart.

Object Types

-- Schema (namespace)
CREATE SCHEMA analytics;
SET search_path TO analytics, public;

-- Sequence
CREATE SEQUENCE invoice_seq START 1000 INCREMENT 1;
SELECT nextval('invoice_seq');

-- View
CREATE VIEW active_users AS
    SELECT id, email, created_at FROM users WHERE deleted_at IS NULL;

-- Materialized View (stores results, must be refreshed)
CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW monthly_revenue AS
    SELECT DATE_TRUNC('month', paid_at) AS month, SUM(amount) AS revenue
    FROM payments GROUP BY 1;

REFRESH MATERIALIZED VIEW CONCURRENTLY monthly_revenue;

-- Domain (constrained type)
CREATE DOMAIN email_address AS TEXT
    CHECK (VALUE ~* '^[A-Z0-9._%+-]+@[A-Z0-9.-]+\.[A-Z]{2,}$');

CREATE TABLE contacts (
    id    BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    email email_address NOT NULL
);

Server Configuration (postgresql.conf)

Key parameters to tune after install:

Parameter	Default	Recommendation
shared_buffers	128MB	25% of RAM
work_mem	4MB	16–64MB (per sort/hash op)
maintenance_work_mem	64MB	256MB–1GB for VACUUM/index builds
effective_cache_size	4GB	75% of RAM (planner hint only)
max_connections	100	Use PgBouncer for pooling; keep <200
random_page_cost	4.0	1.1 for SSD storage
wal_buffers	-1 (auto)	16MB for write-heavy workloads
checkpoint_completion_target	0.9	Leave at 0.9
log_min_duration_statement	-1	Set 1000 (log queries > 1s)

# Apply without restart
SELECT pg_reload_conf();

# Check current value
SHOW shared_buffers;
SELECT current_setting('work_mem');

# Change in session
SET work_mem = '64MB';

Extensions Ecosystem

-- List installed extensions
SELECT name, default_version, installed_version FROM pg_available_extensions
WHERE installed_version IS NOT NULL;

-- Install
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS pgcrypto;      -- cryptographic functions
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS pg_trgm;       -- trigram fuzzy search
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS postgis;       -- geospatial
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS pg_stat_statements; -- query statistics
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS pg_cron;       -- cron job scheduler
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS vector;        -- pgvector for AI embeddings
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS postgres_fdw;  -- foreign data wrapper

-- Update
ALTER EXTENSION pg_trgm UPDATE;

-- Remove
DROP EXTENSION IF EXISTS pg_trgm;

Mandatory Rules

1. Use TIMESTAMPTZ not TIMESTAMP — always store time zone aware values
2. Use TEXT not VARCHAR(255) — no performance difference, fewer migrations
3. Use GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY — not SERIAL (deprecated pattern)
4. Use gen_random_uuid() for UUIDs — requires pgcrypto (included in PostgreSQL 13+)
5. Never cross-database JOIN — split schema concerns within one database via schemas
6. GIN index on JSONB columns — always index JSONB if querying inside the payload
7. scram-sha-256 in pg_hba.conf — never md5 or trust in production
8. Least privilege — grant only what the role needs; use group roles for sharing

Anti-Patterns

• Using TIMESTAMP instead of TIMESTAMPTZ — silent time zone bugs
• Using VARCHAR(255) cargo-culted from MySQL — unnecessary constraint
• Using SERIAL — use GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY instead
• Storing JSON as TEXT — use JSONB for indexing and operators
• Superuser application accounts — always create a restricted role
• No search_path discipline — always qualify schema or set explicitly
• Missing IF NOT EXISTS on CREATE EXTENSION — breaks idempotent migrations